Toxicity footprint of fungicide use in Spanish viticulture: an LCA approach integrating USEtox™ and PestLCI-derived emission fractions

Abstract

Purpose This study quantifies the pesticide-related chemical footprint in Spanish viticulture, linking national use data with USEtox™ through the PestLCI Consensus model, integrating emissions to air, soil, and water into a comprehensive life cycle impact assessment. We ask: (i) which active substances dominate chemical footprints, (ii) how applied mass versus intrinsic hazard drive their contributions, and (iii) how temporal portfolio changes influence overall impacts and management priorities. Methods National pesticide-use data from the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAPA) for 2013 and 2019 were harmonized by active ingredient and linked with compartment emission fractions from PestLCI Consensus model. Characterization factors (CF) for ecotoxicological and human toxicity impacts were retrieved from USEtox™ v2.14 for emissions to continental air, freshwater, and agricultural and natural soils. Resulting Impact Scores (IS) combined emitted mass and compartmental CFs to quantify substance specific contributions. Uncertainty related to potential under- or over-reporting in official statistics was considered and implications. The analysis focuses on organic active substances with available USEtox™ characterisation factors, excluding copper- and sulfur-based compounds and other inorganic substances. Results and discussion The results indicate that a few active substances dominate the chemical footprint of Spanish vineyards. Folpet and Mancozeb drive ecotoxicity impacts, while Mancozeb, Penconazole, Metalaxyl-M, Folpet, and Tebuconazole contribute most to human toxicity due to their high use and intrinsic hazard. Applied mass was decisive: substances with moderate CFs reached high IS under frequent or high-rate use, whereas highly toxic but restricted compounds (e.g., Chlorothalonil) contributed marginally. Regulatory and agronomic changes such as the withdrawal of Iprodione and Propineb, and the increased use of Dithianon and Fenbuconazole, reshaped the impact profile, leading to a noticeable increase in the overall footprint between 2013 and 2019 and a relatively stronger rise in human health impacts. Conclusions Integrating national pesticide-use data with compartmental emission modelling (PestLCI Consensus) and impact characterization (USEtox™) enables a transparent and consistent estimation of chemical footprints. The framework provides actionable evidence for substance prioritization and policy design in sustainable pesticide management and can be transferred to other crops and regions for national-scale life cycle assessments. Recommendations Future work should expand the assessment to more pesticide substances, particularly those currently lacking characterisation factors, while refining emission modelling by incorporating spatial and temporal variability. Updated national pesticide-use statistics will enable dynamic chemical-footprint modelling, supporting longitudinal assessment of toxicity-pressure trajectories and the evaluation of regulatory, agronomic, and policy-driven transitions in pesticide portfolios.