Technostress in Spain between 2016 and 2024: perception of the impact of teleworking on the health of Spanish workers

Abstract

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in work settings, raising concerns about technostress and its potential impact on workers’ health and performance.Objective: To compare technostress-related assessments associated with ICT use among Spanish teleworkers in 2016 and 2024, identifying changes in perceptions and perceived impacts.Design: Retrospective, observational, quantitative, comparative study using two independent cross-sectional samples.Methods: A total of 758 Spanish teleworkers completed an online validated questionnaire in 2016 and 2024. Group differences were examined using chi-square tests [with Cramer’s V/φ and odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) for dichotomous outcomes], and independent-samples comparisons (t-test and Mann–Whitney U with Rosenthal’s r as effect size).Results: ICT use for family and leisure purposes was lower in 2024, although associations were small [family: φ = 0.076, OR = 1.38, 95% CI (1.02, 1.88); leisure: φ = 0.095, OR = 1.58, 95% CI (1.12, 2.22)]. Reports that social networks and mobile phones caused problems increased modestly (social networks: V = 0.138; mobile phones: V = 0.121). Ratings of personal experience with ICT shifted significantly (p < 0.001) with the largest association observed in the study (V = 0.215). Regarding technostress subscales, perceived autonomy and positive consequences were lower in 2024 (both p = 0.002; |r| ≈ 0.14), whereas negative consequences (p < 0.001; |r| ≈ 0.21) and perceived capacity to work well using ICT (p = 0.014; |r| ≈ 0.11) were higher in 2024. Overall, effects were generally small in magnitude but consistent.Conclusion: Between 2016 and 2024, Spanish teleworkers showed statistically significant but mostly small changes in technostress-related perceptions. The most consistent pattern was a modest increase in perceived negative consequences alongside slight gains in perceived capacity to manage ICT-related demands. These findings support the need for preventive occupational policies that support healthy teleworking conditions.